Predicting Self-Regulation through Inner Speech Reflexivity Modes

Mehrdad Shahidi[1] Thomas M. Brinthaupt[2] Mahnaz Shojaee[3] 

[1]  Dr. Mehrdad Shahidi, Nova Scotia Inter-University Doctoral Program, Mount Saint Vincent University, Canada‎. Department of Psychology, Islamic Azad University-Central Tehran Branch, Iran, mehrdad.shahidi@msvu.ca  

[2]  Dr. Thomas M Brinthaupt, Professor, Department of Psychology, Middle Tennessee State University, USA, Tom.Brinthaupt@mtsu.edu

[3]  Mahnaz Shojaee, PhD Student, Department of Educational Psychology, Centre for Research in Applied Measurement and Evaluation, University of Alberta, Canada, mshojaee@ualberta.ca

Abstract

Archer (2012) theorized that internal conversation [inner speech] has a mediating role between objective or macroscopic features of social configuration and subjective mental [cognitive] activities. This mediating role is represented by communicative, meta-reflexivity, autonomous, and fractured modes. The literature review reveals that self-regulation may have originated in inner speech. However, it is unclear how different modes of inner speech/conversation can explain and predict self-regulation. To examine this question, 150 students completed measures of self-regulation and inner speech. Students reported lower levels of the fractured mode of inner speech than other modes. Although the meta-reflexivity mode (MRM) had the largest effect size in predicting self-regulation, communicative mode, self-consciousness, and MRM together predicted 41% of variability of self-regulation. As well, there were no differences in female and male participants’ scores in inner speech reflexivity modes and self-regulation stages. The results suggest several implications to enhance students’ self-regulation within the social context of educational settings.

Keywords: Self-Consciousness; Self-Regulation; Inner Speech Reflexivity Modes

References

Aubrey, L. L., Brown, J. M., & Miller, W. R. (1994). Psychometric properties of a self-regulation questionnaire

(SRQ). Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 18, 429.

Alderson-Day, B. & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Inner speech: Development, cognitive functions, ‎        phenomenology, and neurobiology. Psychological Bulletin ,141(5), 931–965. ‎           http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000021

Archer, M. (2003). Structure, agency and the internal conversation. Cambridge ‎University Press

Archer, M. (2007). Making our way through the world: Human reflexivity and social. Mobility Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.‎

Archer, M. (2012). The reflexive imperative in late modernity. Cambridge ‎University Press.‎

Archer, M. (2013). Reflexivity. Sociopedia.isa. Retrieved from:                 http://www.sagepub.net/isa/resources/pdf/Reflexivity2013.pdf

Archer, M. & Maccarini, A. M. (2013). Engaging with the world: Agency, institutions, ‎historical formations.

London: Routledge.‎

Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and ‎Human Decision

Processes 50: 248-287.‎

Bashir, H. & Bashir, L. (2016). Gender difference on self-regulation among adolescents. Indian Journal of

Applied Research.6 (3), 694-698. Retrieved from                 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322699581_gender_difference_on_self-             regulation_among_adolescents

Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. D. (2007). Self-regulation and the executive ‎function: The

self as controlling agent. In Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. Kruglanski, A. W. & ‎Higgins, E.T. (Ed). New ‎York: Guilford.‎

Bodrova, E. (2014). Developing self-regulation: The Vygotskian view. Retrieved from:                 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288962687_Developing_self- regulation_The_Vygotskian_view

Bramucci, A. (2013). Self-regulated learning. Retrieved from ‎ http://intelligent-  tutor.eu/files/2012/06/I-TUTOR_supportmaterial_self-regulated_learning_EN.pdf

Brinthaupt, T. M., Hein, M. B., & Kramer, T. (2009). The Self-Talk Scale: Development, factor analysis, and

validation. Journal of Personality Assessment. 91, 82–92.         https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802484498

Brinthaupt, T. M. (2019). Individual differences in self-talk frequency: Social isolation and cognitive disruption.

Front. Psychol. 10:1088. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01088

Carver, C. S., Johnson, S. L., & Joormann, J. (2009). Two-mode models of self-regulation as a ‎tool for

conceptualizing effects of the serotonin system in normal behavior and diverse ‎   disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4). 195-199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01635.x

Carey, K. B., Neal, D. J., & Collins, S. E. (2004). A psychometric analysis of the self-regulation ‎questionnaire.

Addictive Behaviors, 29:253–260.‎   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2003.08.001

Chan, R. C.K., Shum, D., Toulopoulou, T., & Chen, E. Y.H. (2008). Assessment of executive ‎functions: Review

of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of ‎Clinical ‎ Neuropsychology, 23: 201–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010

Cheyney, K., Wang, J., & Bettini, B. (2013). Make every word count: Using language as a ‎bridge ‎ to self-

regulation in early childhood settings. Dimensions of Early Childhood. ‎ ‎41(2), 11-17.‎

Clarke, G. (2008). The internal conversation: A personal relations theory perspective. Journal ‎of Critical Realism,

7(1) 2008,57-82. https://doi.org/10.1558/jocr.v7i1.57

Colombo, M. (2011). Educational choices in action: Young Italians as reflexive agents and the ‎      role of ‎   significant adults. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education, 1. 14-48.‎
                doi:10.14658/pupj-ijse-2011-1-2

Corsini, R. (1999). The dictionary of psychology. Brunner-Mazel, USA.‎

Earl, D. (2007). Concepts. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/concepts/

Florez, I. R. (2011). Developing young children’s self-regulation through everyday experiences. ‎Retrieved from

https://www.earlychildhoodireland.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Self-               Regulation_Florez_OnlineJuly20111.pdf

Garnefski, N., & Kraaij, V. (2007). The cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire: ‎Psychometric features and

prospective relationships with depression and anxiety in ‎adults. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23(3):141–149. https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1015-5759.23.3.141

Garnefski, N., Grol, M., Kraaij, V., & Hamming, J.F. (2008). Cognitive coping and goal ‎  adjustment in people

with Peripheral Arterial Disease: Relationships with depressive ‎symptoms. Patient Education and Counseling, 1(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2008.11.009

Gavora, P., Jakesova, J., & Kalenda, J. (2015). The Czech validation of the self-regulation questionnaire. Procedia

– Social and Behaviornl Sciences 171, 222 – 230 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2008.11.009

Goubet, K. E. & Chrysikou, E. G. (2019). Emotion regulation flexibility: Gender differences in context sensitivity

and repertoire. Frontiers in Psychology, 935, 1-10.     https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00935

Greene, J. A. (2018). Self-regulation in education. New York: Routledge.

Hadjicharalambous, M.Z. & Fanti, K. A. (2018). Self-regulation, cognitive capacity and risk ‎taking: Investigating

heterogeneity among adolescents with callous-unemotional traits. ‎Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 49:331–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0753-9

Heimpel, N. F., Qian, X., & Song, W. (2018). Parenting and child self-regulation in Chinese ‎families: A multi-

informant study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27:2343–2353‎ https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1063-y.

Hofer, B. K. (2017). Shaping the epistemology of teacher practice through reflection and reflexivity. Educational Psychologist, 52(4), 299-306. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2017.1355247

Kanfer, F. H. (1970a). Self-monitoring: Methodological limitations and clinical applications.‎ Journal of

Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 148-152.‎

Kanfer, F. H. (1970b). Self-regulation: Research, issues, and speculation. In C. Neuringer & J. ‎L.‎

                Michael (Eds.), Behavior modification in clinical psychology.178-220, New ‎                        York:Appleton-Century-Crofts.‎

Karoly, P., & Kafner, R. (2003). Frederick H. Kanfer (1925–2002). American Psychological ‎Association, Inc.

58(12), 1095. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.12.1095

Khodayarifard, M., Brinthaupt, T. M., Akbari Zardkhaneh, S., & Ebadi Fard Azar, G. (2014). The psychometric

properties of the Self-Talk Scale among Iranian university students. Psychology, 5(2), 119-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.52019

King, P. M., & Kitchener, K. S. (2004). Reflective judgment: Theory and research on the development of epistemic assumptions through adulthood. Educational Psychologist, 39, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3901_2  

Kraaij, V. & Garnefski, N. (2019). The behavioral emotion regulation questionnaire: development, psychometric

properties and relationships with emotional problems and the   cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences 137, 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.07.036

Legault, L. & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Self-determination, self-regulation, and the brain: autonomy ‎improves

performance by enhancing neuro-affective responsiveness to self-regulation ‎failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 105(1), 123–138.‎doi:10.1037/a0030426

Malim, T. & Birch, A. (1998) Introductory psychology. 1st Ed. Macmillan Press, LTD

Margolis, E. & Laurence, S. (2011). Concepts. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ‎ Edward N. Zalta (ed.),

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts/

McCarthy-Jones, S. & Fernyhough, C. (2011). The varieties of inner speech: Links ‎between quality of inner

speech and psychopathological variables in a sample of young ‎adults.    Consciousness & Cognition, 20; 1586-1593. ‎https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.005 ‎

Miller, W. R. & Brown, J. M. (1991). Self-regulation as a conceptual basis for the prevention ‎and treatment of

addictive behaviours, in: Heather, N., Miller, W. R. & Greeley, J. (Eds) ‎Self-control and the Addictive Behaviours, 3-79. Sydney, Maxwell Macmillan.‎

Morin, A. (2005). Possible links between self-awareness and inner speech: Theoretical ‎background, underlying

mechanisms, and empirical evidence. Journal of Consciousness ‎Studies, 12 (4–5),115–134.‎ Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281130176_Possible_links_between_self awareness_and_inner_speech

Morin, A. (2011). Self-awareness part 1: Definition, measures, effects, functions, and ‎antecedents. Social and

Personality Psychology Compass, 5(10), 807–823.‎      

                https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00387.x

Morin, A. & Uttl, B. (2013). Inner speech: A window into conscious. Retrieved from: ‎                https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240024225_Inner_speech_A_window_into_con               sciousness

Morin, A., El-Sayed, E., & Racy, F. (2015). Self-awareness, inner speech, and theory of mind in    typical and

ASD individuals: A critical review. In: Theory of mind (Ed: ‎Elizabeth    Sherwood). Nova Science Publishers, Inc ‎ Retrieved from:    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281121157_Self-awareness_inner_speech_and_theory_of_mind_in_typical_and_ASD_individuals_A_criti                cal_review

Neal, D. J. & Carey, K. B. (2004). Developing discrepancy within self-regulation theory:‎ Use of personalized

normative feedback and personal strivings with heavy-drinking ‎college students. Addictive Behaviors. 29, 281–297‎. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2003.08.004

Neal, D. J. & Carey, K. B. (2005). A follow-up psychometric analysis of the self-regulation ‎questionnaire.

Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19(4), 414–422.‎ doi: 10.1037/0893-164X.19.4.414

Perkowska-Klejman, A., & Odrowaz-Coates, A. (2019). Measuring the unmeasurable?

                Differences in reflexive thinking among Polish students. The New Educational Review,

                55(1), 77-88. doi: 10.15804/tner.2019.55.1.06

Perrone-Bertolottia, M., Rapin, L., Lachaux, J. P., Baciua, M., &  H. Loevenbruck, H. (2014). ‎What is that little

voice inside my head? Inner speech phenomenology, its role in ‎cognitive performance, and its relation to self-monitoring. Behavioural Brain Research‎,261: 220– 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2013.12.034

Ren, X., Wang, T., & Jarrold, C. (2016). Individual differences in frequency of inner speech: Differential relations

with cognitive and non-cognitive factors. Frontiers in Psychology. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01675

Rezai-Rashti, G.  (2012). Women and education in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Repressive ‎policies, unexpected

outcomes. Global Transitions-Legatum Institute.1-12. Retrieved from: https://lif.blob.core.windows.net/lif/docs/default-source/default-library/women-         and-education-in-the-islamic-republic-of-iran-repressive-policies-unexpected-outcomes.pdf?sfvrsn=0

Saban, M. T., Ornoy, A., Parush, S. (2014). Executive function and attention in young adults ‎with and without

Developmental Coordination Disorder – A comparative study. ‎Research ‎in Developmental Disabilities, 35: 2644–2650. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.002

Sandars, J. & Cleary, T.I. (2011). Self-regulation theory: Applications to medical education: ‎AMEE guide No. 58.

Medical Teacher, 33. 875–886. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2011.595434

Santrock, J.w., Mackenzie, A.R., Leung, K. H., & Malcomson, T. (2005). Life-Span ‎Development.‎ McGraw-H,

Ryerson. ‎

Shahidi, M. (2015). Inner language and a sense of agency: Educational implication. ‎Education, ‎‎5(5): 142-149.

http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.edu.20150505.03.html

Trommsdorff, G. (2009). Culture and development of self-regulation. Social and Personality ‎Psychology

Compass. 3(5).687–701,  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00209.x

Vallotton, C. & Ayoub, C. (2011). Use your words: The role of language in the development of toddlers’self-

regulation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26, 169-181. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.09.002

Vallotton, C. (2008). Infants take self-regulation into their own hands. Zero to Three. 29-34. ‎                http://www.marriageandfamilytherapistofcarlsbad.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Inf                ants_take_Self_Regulation_Into_their_Own_Hands.225125517.pdf

Veijalainen, J., Reunamo, J., & Heikkilä, M. (2019). Early gender differences in emotional expressions and ‎self-

regulation in settings of early childhood education and care. Early Child Development and Care. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2019.1611045

World Bank Middle East and North Africa Social and Economic Development Group. (2009). ‎The status &progress of women in the Middle East & North Africa. 1-99. ‎   Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/911511503553406149/pdf/116732-  WP-MENA-Status-and-Progress-2009-PUBLIC.pdf